Finding Alternatives To Transportation Fuels Environmental Sciences Essay

There is a big planetary involvement in happening options to transit fuels to replace petroleum-based fuels. The possible for biofuels to run into the turning energy demands every bit good as contribute to a decrease in the nursery gas emanations chiefly in the transit sector. Increasing oil monetary values and the uncertainty about continued oil supplies have added more involvement in the thought of biofuels. Most treatment has focused on the advantages of ethyl alcohol and biodiesel production in the US and Europe in footings of: Justifying clime alteration, where biofuels substitute fossil fuels and their related nursery gas emanations. These benefits apply to the bulk of states but for developing states the production and usage of biofuels have extra possible benefits which are: Promotion of rural development by production a locally generated signifier of energy for processing and transit Making rural employment and wealth Decrease of deforestation and land debasement as biofuels besides substitute for the energy current derived from wood Multiple usage harvests can be reallocated for energy or nutrient demands depending on altering local demands and precedences In the current state of affairs were in biofuels are a large precedence policy in many different states. Towards of import issues such as nursery gas decrease, energy security, decrease of poorness and aid to keep sustainable progress biofuels shows good positiveness. However if they are non implemented in the right manner there could be more possible danger and injury than existent good. Were they could stop up doing nutrient deficits, environmental jobs every bit good as increased poorness. The inquiry is what is the best attack to take? 1st-generation biofuels such as sugar cane ethyl alcohol in Brazil, maize ethyl alcohol in US, oilseed colza bio-diesel in Germany, and palm oil bio-diesel in Malaysia are made utilizing consecutive frontward engineering. The basic provender stocks for the production of first coevals biofuels are frequently seeds or grains such as wheat, which yields amylum that is fermented into bio-ethanol, or sunflower seeds, which are pressed to give vegetable oil which can be used in bio-diesel. first-generation-biofuels Fig1 – 1st coevals biofuels Even though most analyses indicate that 1st coevals biofuels have a net benefit in footings of less nursery gas and energy balance they besides have several jobs. Current issues for many 1st coevals biofuels are that they: contribute to higher nutrient monetary values due to competition with nutrient harvests are an expensive option for energy security taking into history entire production costs excepting authorities grants make non run into their claimed environmental benefits because the biomass feedstock may non ever be produced sustainably are speed uping deforestation potentially have a negative impact on biodiversity compete for scarce H2O resources in some parts. Second coevals biofuels use waste biomass and agricultural residue such an illustration being maize chaffs this makes them a more practical solution ( M.B. Charles, P. Barnes 2008 ) . The usage of waste biomass and easy-to-grow feedstock ‘s has a lower environmental impact when compared to 1st coevals biofuel production ( M.B. Charles, P. Barnes 2008 ) . By utilizing specially designed micro-organisms, the feedstock ‘s tough cellulose is broken down into sugar and so fermented. Alternatively a thermo-chemical path can be taken whereby biomass is gasified and so liquefied in a procedure known as ‘biomass-to-liquid ‘ ( E.L. Kunkes, D.A. Simonetti 2008 ) . The 3rd coevals types of biofuels use improved feedstock instead so bettering the fuel devising procedure. Algae is a possible beginning which can bring forth about 30 times more energy per square metre compared to set down harvests ( Anon 2009 ) , harmonizing to ( G. Warwick 2009 ) the procedure in which to pull out the algal oil is non yet up to the best of ability. Fourth coevals type biofuels combine genetically optimized feedstock ‘s which are made in order to capture C with bugs in order to do the fuels ( J. Houghton, S. Weatherwax, J. Ferrel 2006 ) . To guarantee that 4th coevals biofuels are a C negative beginning of fuel the key is the gaining control of CO2 ( ARS National Program 2007 ) .The job on the other manus with this is the deficiency of equal C gaining control.Examples of biofuelsVegetable oil: Lower quality oil is normally used as fuel and comestible vegetable oil is non. Used vegetable oil is going more common in being used into bio-diesel. In order for vegetable oil to be used it must be heated to cut down its viscousness either by electric spirals or heat money changers for efficient combustion.Used_vegetable_cooking_oil Fig 2. Vegetable Oil Biodiesel: In Europe this is the most used biofuel type. By a procedure known as transesterification it is produced from oils or fats and is a liquid similar in composing to fossil/mineral Diesel. Oils are assorted with sodium hydrated oxide and methyl alcohol ( or ethyl alcohol ) and the chemical reaction produces biodiesel fatty acid methyl ( or ethyl ) ester and glycerin. One portion glycerin is produced for every 10 parts biodiesel. Biodiesel sample.JPG Fig. 3 biodiesel sample Bio intoxicants: Produced from intoxicants strictly where the most common being ethanol and least common being propanol and butyl alcohols are produced by micro beings and enzymes through the agitation of sugars or starches which is the simplest method or by cellulose which is more complicated. Bioethers: Bio quintessences are cost-efficient compounds that act as octane evaluation foils. They besides enhance engine public presentation whilst cut downing engine wear and toxic exhaust emanations. Reducing the sum of ground-level ozone, they contribute to the quality of the air we breathe. Biogas: Biogas is produced by the procedure of anaerobiotic digestion of organic stuff by anaerobes. It can be produced either from biodegradable waste stuffs or by the usage of energy harvests fed into anaerobiotic digesters to supplement gas outputs. The solid by merchandise known as digestate can be used as a biofuel or a fertiliser. Landfill gas is a less clean signifier of biogas which is produced in landfills through of course happening anaerobiotic digestion. If it escapes into the ambiance it is a potent nursery gas. Biogas_pipes Fig. 4 biogas pipes Syngas: Syngas is a mixture of C monoxide and H is produced by partial burning of biomass, that is, burning with an sum of O that is non sufficient to change over the biomass wholly to carbon dioxide and H2O. Solid biofuels: Examples include wood, sawdust, grass film editings, domestic garbage, wood coal, agricultural waste, non-food energy harvests, and dried manure. ( Biofuel. 2009 ) . When natural biomass is already in a suited signifier such as firewood it can fire in a range or furnace straight to supply heat or raise steam. When natural biomass is in an inconvenient signifier such as sawdust, wood french friess, grass, urban waste wood, agricultural residues the typical procedure is to densify the biomass. This procedure includes crunching the natural biomass to an appropriate particulate size known as pig fuel which depending on the compaction type can be from 1 to 3A centimeter which is so concentrated into a fuel merchandise.Environmental ImpactsBiofuels being produced may do a figure of environmental jobs such as: Land usage alterations Expansion in agribusiness Changes in agricultural patterns Transportation system of the biomass used to do biofuels Conversion of the biomass into fuels After fuels are made disposal of the staying waste stuffs Over the past few old ages several surveies have shown environmental issues Current analysis shows a great scope of environmental jobs and benefits that vary greatly depending on several factors such as: the type of biofuel the biomass feedstocks and the cultivation methods used the engineering used to change over the biomass into fuel the type of energy used to power the transition the location where feedstocks and biofuels are produced the extent to which a turning demand for biofuels induces alterations in land usage and land screen In the antediluvian times the usage of wood and wood coal were common and liquid biofuels were indispensable in the development of cars and burning engines this shows biofuels are non new. Biofuels chiefly played a portion in poorer states whereas fossil fuels were the chief beginning of energy. Recent involvement has largely been in biofuels of liquid signifier as these can easy replace fuels used for transit without major alterations needed. The difference in monetary value between liquid fuels and solid fuels is extremely wedged due to the convenience of liquid fuels ( FAO 2008b ) . Graph 1 below shows the difference in cost for coal which is a solid and rough oil a liquid over the clip of 50 old ages by looking at the graph we can clearly see the difference in monetary value turning dramatically making 2007 oil costs 12 times more than coal for tantamount energy. oil V coal monetary value Graph 1 – US crude oil & A ; coal monetary valuesFood Vs FuelFor the production of ethyl alcohol sugar cane which largely comes from Brazil and maize which comes largely from the US are used. For biodiesels rapeseed, canola oil, soya bean and oil thenars are used. Since these harvests are besides used for nutrient shows us clearly that there is direct competition between nutrient and biofuel for harvest production this competition is already doing major strain on planetary nutrient supplies. Harmonizing to ( FAO 2008a ) is was recorded in 2007 that merely 5 % of the planetary production of cereals rice, wheat, maize was used in the production of biofuels and the bulk of it was used for direct ingestion for worlds or for carnal provenders. However cereal usage for biofuels is increasing at a much higher rate than that of nutrient usage. Besides it is recorded that from 2006 to 2007 there has been an addition of 37 % usage of maize in the US to do ethyl alcohol ( FAO 2008a ) . From 2006 Brazilian sugar cane covered an country of 7 million hectares half of this country was used for ethanol production and the other half for sugar production. In 2007 the production of sugarcane country was about 10 % of the sum. Most of the enlargement was on grazing land 65 % , 17 % on soya bean and 5 % on maize and orange. Since carnal denseness in Brazil is really low it seems that the loss of about 0.5 million hectares of grazing lands in Brazil is non impacting the meat production. A little addition in carnal denseness can therefore balance out the losingss of grazing land. But so far from what it seems sugarcane spread outing in Brazil is non doing any excess force per unit area on the nutrient monetary values in the state ( Goldemberg J. , S. T 2008 ) . A major job in Brazil is the supplanting of soya bean from Central Brazil by sugar cane in the way of the Amazon part which adds force per unit area of deforestation in the country ( Martinelli, L. A 2007 ) . The potency for competition between biofuels and nutrient production will construct up as biofuel production additions. Even if non-food harvests are used as the feedstock for the biofuels the possibility for competition with nutrient production still exists if the biofuel harvests are grown on land capable for nutrient production ( Searchinger 2008 ) .Emissions of Greenhouse gasThe most recent analyses show a positive benefit on the net nursery gas emanations for the usage of liquid biofuels where there are little differences for corn-ethanol to a significant greater difference for production of ethyl alcohol from sugar cane or biodiesel from palm oil ( Gallagher, E. 2008 ) . Corn used to bring forth ethyl alcohol can hold both a net positive and negative consequence of over 30 % when compared to fossil fuels in conformity to chart below corn-ethanol scope from 12 % to 20 % for the mean net nursery gas nest eggs which is taken from recent analyses ( Searchinger 2008 ) . Most analyses have concentrated on how biofuels have effected nursery gas emanations by concentrating on how much part CO2 plays. Even though CO2 is a major cause of planetary heating there are besides other gases which play a major portion such as azotic oxide ( N20 ) and methane ( CH4 ) . Harmonizing to ( Prather et al. 2001 ) azotic oxide can be up to 300 times greater in its ability to warm the planet than CO2 for an tantamount mass over a 100 twelvemonth mean period. net economy in nursery gas emanations Graph 2 – Net nest eggs in nursery gas emanations in comparing to fossil fuels In dirts, deposits and H2O azotic oxide is created accidentally as a side consequence of bacterial processing of N. The increased usage of N fertiliser is the chief ground of the planetary addition in N2O fluxes where merely some of this moves straight from agricultural Fieldss to the ambiance. Most the flux occurs in downstream aquatic ecosystems which get the N pollution chiefly from carnal waste every bit good as agricultural Fieldss. Overall, about 4 % of the N that human activity introduces into the environment ends up as N2O in the ambiance. Biofuel production is clearly lending to the planetary N2O flux given that biofuel harvests often are greatly fertilized with man-made N fertiliser, largely in industrial states. An of import idea for most analyses of net nursery gas emanations from biofuels is that they merely consider the current degree of production and do non undertake the impacts of land usage alteration that can be an add-on to the spread outing usage of biofuels. In the United States when more land is used for turning harvests for biofuels feedbacks through the planetary economic system can be given to ensue in land transitions which even include tropical deforestation in other states. These alterations in land can hold really harmful jobs on nursery gas emanations and demands to be included in the net nursery balance of the biofuels. For maize ethanol the emanation of nursery gas is doubled compared to firing fossil fuels because of indirect land ( Searchinger 2008 ) . To utilize liquid biofuels for transit might non be the best of thoughts in order to increase energy security or to cut down nursery gas emanations whereas a more efficient usage may be in stationary installations to bring forth electricity or heat. The critical issues for both Greenhouse gas emanations and nutrient production are which land types will be converted to biofuel harvests and the harvests that will be grown. If biofuel production is targeted towards lands earlier converted to agriculture but non presently being used for harvest production such as abandoned farmland the Greenhouse gas and biodiversity effects will be much more positive than if biofuel production causes the direct or indirect transition of natural ecosystems ( Campbell 2008 ) . Harmonizing to the current rating if biofuels are produced in ways that cut down transition of home ground e.g. by using waste merchandises, well increasing outputs, and aiming ruined grazing land and discarded cropland, biofuels could play a positive function in extenuating clime alteration, heightening environmental quality, and beef uping the planetary economic system.Biofuels and WaterCrops and biomass for nutrient or energy need big sums of H2O ( Molden 2007a ) . Water demand at the current clip for harvests is modest but easy this can lift as energy monetary values lift due to increased biofuel production due to concerns over the impacts of nursery gas emanations. This leads to more competition between nutrient and biofuel for land and H2O this will use more force per unit area particularly in H2O scarce countries. There are plenty land and H2O resources to feed the universe but if today ‘s environmental and nutrient tendencies carry on this will take to H2O crisis in many parts of the universe every bit good as many possible H2O jobs unless sufficient policy steps are implemented harmonizing to a recent appraisal on H2O direction in agribusiness ( CA 2007 ) . The H2O demands of energy derived from biomass are about 70 to 400 times more than that of other energy bearers such as fossil fuels, air current, and solar. More than 90 % of the H2O needed is used in the production of the feedstock ( Gerben Leenes 2008 ) .Effectss on aquatic ecosystemsStream flow decrease and ordinance: Reduced watercourse flow and in utmost instances dried up rivers are cause due to H2O backdowns from rivers, lakes and groundwater for irrigation. Some lakes are shriveling because of over extraction upstream illustrations being Aral Sea and Lake Chad ( Falkenmark 2007 ) . Wetland debasement: Wetlands give of import adaptable ecosystem services for H2O resources such as saving of inundation and deposits, groundwater recharge, base flow ordinance, natural filter, biodiversity. Water ordinance and drainage for agricultural intents may be two of the prima causes for loss in wetland countries ( Finlayson and D'Cruz 2005 ) . Water quality: Direct impacts come from fertiliser, pesticide and weedkiller application. Nutrient pollution has of import impacts on the quality of groundwater and river H2O and may ensue in eutrophication of wetlands. Other water-quality jobs relate to the sewerage produced in the production of biofuels. Changes in H2O tabular arraies: Over pumping of groundwater resources taking to groundwater diminution and endangering the sustainability of the resources occurs in India, China, Mexico, western USA and Pakistan, among others ( Shah 2007 ) . Rising groundwater degrees is a major job in with dirt salinization in Australia and other countries. Salts have moved into the surface soils so that big piece of lands of land have become less suited or even unserviceable for agribusiness ( Anderies 2005 ) . Where groundwater is fresh over pumping leads to groundwater diminution but where groundwater is saline and unserviceable for agribusiness, ooze from irrigation leads to a rise in the ground-water tabular array, salinization, and stagnating H2O, therefore rendering land unserviceable for agribusiness. Changes in overflow due to set down usage alterations: The consequence of transition of woods into croplands is really site-specific depending on incline, dirt, rainfall strength and land screen. Little is identified of the possible hydrological impacts of large-scale transition of waste land into jatropha plantations in India, which will increase harvest transpiration, infiltration and shadowing but will diminish dirt vaporization ( Calder 1999 ) . Moisture recycling: Changes in land usage can easy change evapotranspiration rates e.g. from large-scale deforestation and therefore these alterations can change local clime ( Falkenmark 2007 ) .Possible tracts to cut down inauspicious environmental effectsImproved H2O productiveness and better H2O direction aimed at providing a assortment of ecosystems every bit good as less usage of H2O intensive feedstock ‘s can cut down some effects of biofuel systems on H2O resources. These methods are explained in more item below. Less H2O demanding harvests: Sugarcane and maize need a batch of H2O. In the chief sugar cane countries in Brazil, where rainfall is abundant this is non an issue, but in countries with insufficient or undependable rainfall they need big measures of irrigation H2O. Scientist are making experiments with less demanding harvests such as Jatropha in India which can be grown on dry conditions. Increasing H2O productiveness: There is thought into bettering H2O productiveness by cut downing the sum of H2O needed for harvest production and go forthing more H2O for other utilizations such as the environment ( Molden 2007a ) . Such H2O direction patterns include H2O harvest home, auxiliary irrigation, preciseness irrigation, and dirt H2O preservation patterns. Factors outside H2O include betterments in dirt birthrate, control of plagues and diseases, subsidies and better markets. Reuse and recycling of H2O may already be high and sensed losingss and inefficiencies lower than by and large assumed ( Seckler 1998 ) . Pull offing H2O for multi functionality: Many of the H2O jobs come from large-scale monocultures managed for one ecosystem service either agricultural or biomass production. Increased outputs can travel manus in manus with decreased environmental impacts through increased H2O efficiency, improved H2O quality and increased C segregation ( Pretty 2006 ) . Biofuel can give both benefits and jobs to the H2O sector where it largely depends on the pick of feedstock, location of production, current productiveness, predominating agricultural patterns and the manner H2O is managed. With appropriate steps in H2O direction taking topographic point this could greatly cut down the environmental impacts and assist reconstruct debauched ecosystems. This will depend on how successful these alterations in agricultural direction patterns are brought. Multiple attacks to happening originative solutions are needed to guarantee sustainable production of biofuels.Crops for BiofuelEnergy is needed for every life being on our planet it is required for growing, reproduction, care and motive power this energy is provided by workss. The same energy is originated from the Sun which flows from workss through a web of consumers and decomposers and bit by bit returns the bearer molecule CO2 to the ambiance. Another illustration which is more sudden is fires happening of course from buoy uping work stoppages or by the activity of adult male which is chemically similar to the release of solar energy accumulated by workss. Humans every bit good as some other animate beings use workss f or building but worlds have combusted biomass under certain conditions to provide heat for heat and cookery in both stationary and grip. Due to concerns about the expected exhaustion of oil, energy security and high energy monetary values every bit good as planetary warming the hunt for alternate beginnings of energy is due. Chief focal point is to seek energy for transit of liquid signifier which consumes 50 % of entire usage of crude oil. When the first major crude oil monetary value rise occurred in the 1970 ‘s there was a batch of involvement and analysis of energetic efficiency of agribusiness in general where Diesel engines were ab initio designed to run on vegetable oil. The usage of biofuels did non nevertheless continue to increase because the monetary value of crude oil fell every bit good as the force per unit area to besides develop alternate beginnings. The current state of affairs we are in is nevertheless more complex and this is because crude oil monetary values are lifting because the demand exceeds the production. About all renewable liquid conveyance fuel comes from biodiesel and bio ethyl alcohol from a little assortment of harvests. Fuels such as man-made gasolene and Diesel which are besides liquid fuels play minor functions. However biogas, H and electricity which are non liquid conveyance fuels are besides produced from biomass. Bio ethyl alcohol is produced by agitation of glucose and fruit sugar which are merely obtained from sucrose harvests such as sugar cane or sugar Beta vulgaris. Glucose and fructose can every bit good be formed by hydrolysis of starches from grains, tuber harvests e.g. murphy and manioc. Agitation is followed by distillment and desiccation both energy demanding stairss to bring forth fuel class intoxicant. Burning biomass residues or byproducts as usually done in sugar cane refineries can supply some of the energy necessary in treating. Fermentation produces organic co-products that find usage as carnal nutrient. Biodiesel is formed chemically by trans-esterification of vegetable oils obtained by physical and or chemical separation from oilseed harvests. The procedure reduces long branched molecules less appropriate as fuel to short straight-chained fatty acid methyl esters of lower viscousness and higher cetane figure which are more easy combustible. Trans -esterification utilizations methanol or ethanol and produces glycerol as a coproduct.Future options and possible for enlargementTo increase biofuel production ideally harvest country and or harvest outputs will hold to increase by utilizing harvest residues and dedicated energy harvests every bit good as using more efficient extraction and transition methods. At a planetary degree enlargement of biofuel production must be achieved in the context of 50 % addition in nutrient production by 2030 which explains current concern with moral, nutrient security, agronomic, and ecological issues associated with biofuel production ( Thompson 2008 ) . Greater harvest country but largely greater harvest outputs: Table 1 below shows portion of the entire land country and the entire land country which is non limited by incline, low rain autumn and dirt quality ( FAO-AGL 2003 ) . It shows that merely a little sum of land does non see terrible limitation for rain Federal cropping. This analysis does non widen to the productiveness of land with rough bounds. These land usage transitions force of import ecosystem services and openly vie with the lands other possible values. Due to this a sustainable addition must come from better productiveness of bing land. This is possible by site specific combinations of better production methods, better cultivars and in most instances more inputs of fertiliser and irrigation. universe distribution of area.JPG Table 1. Land country non limited by incline, low rain autumn and dirt quality In recent decennaries harvest productiveness has improved by turning possible outputs every bit good as decreases in the output spread by better timelier operations, more fertilisers, better weed and insect and pest control. Breeding of workss has improved altered cultivars, opposition to disease and late with biotech methods opposition to insects and better weed control through weedkiller opposition. If to increase planetary nutrient production will do a terrible bound on land accessible for conventional feedstock production where at the same clip could duplicate the measure of residues available for transition to biofuel. Extra additions in nutrient supply can besides allow irregular parts from grain excess. Handiness of biomass is highly site specific because residues from harvests and woods are non ‘wastes left to decompose ‘ but fodder for farm animate beings every bit good as a web of consumers and decomposers that play a chief portion in the care of dirt birthrate. Residues besides protect dirts from eroding and continue the physical construction of dirt therefore playing a important portion in minimising taint of surface Waterss. Gross remotion is non possible without impact. Crops of the maximal output will lend most. Low giving up harvests which are grown over broad countries in semi waterless zones are more likely to lend really small because the stubble produced is needed to protect dirt and supply fodder for graze animate beings. States that want to see residues and waste biomass as options need regional stock lists of resources that can place countries of exposure to removal, degree of biomass and cost of transit. For biofuel production it is difficult to gauge how much residues would lend in footings of competition and handiness from other energy extraction ironss. Biomass 10 % of the entire universe energy usage is biomass which the following most of import energy beginning after dodo fuel which contributes to 80 % ( FAO 2008a ) . The usage of nutrient harvest to do biofuels will go on to be a job as the universe struggles to increase nutrient production to better feed a turning population that at present includes about 1 billion who are badly ill-fed. Particular energy harvests are non an efficient manner to avoid competition with nutrient production because they besides need land, H2O, foods and other inputs and hence compete with nutrient production. There is no grounds that non-food harvests can be grown good for energy production on land that could non besides grow harvests for nutrient. Important beginnings of biofuel are residues from agribusiness and forestry. Procedures through which this biomaterial will be transformed into fuel are non yet recognized. Similarly the sum of residues that could be sustainably utilised is unknown in most instances. Deciding this issue of handiness of residues is a merely as of import research activity as the development of transmutation tracts. Evidence suggests biofuels can do a modest ( 10 % ) part to national transit fuel supply in states with big cropland resources relative to population size. However, few states will be important exporters of biofuels. Clearly, biofuels can non be a major beginning of transit fuel in a extremely populated and energy demanding universe.Biomass Conversion to Fuels and Electric PowerUsing thermic and biological procedures biomass can be converted into a assortment of solid, gaseous and liquid fuels. The option of procedure and merchandise depends upon the nature of the biomass feedstock and the market where it will be sold. Biomass and wood coal are solid bio energy merchandises. Gaseous bio-energy merchandises can be formed by anaerobiotic digestion ( biogas ) , thermic or supercritical gasification ( manufacturer gas, or syngas ) , or by upgrading of the primary merchandises of anaerobiotic digestion or gasification ( H and methane ) . Liquid bio energy merchandises are derived from physically, chemically or thermally processing biomass: saccharides, syngas, triglycerides and bio oil/biocrude. Liquid fuel production from saccharides chiefly focuses on ethyl alcohol even though butyl alcohol, furans, isoprenes, butyl alcohol and methane seriess is besides possible to be used. Production from triglycerides on the other manus chiefly focuses on methyl esters ( biodiesel ) . Liquid fuels from bio oil and biocrude include a scope of hydrocarbons suited as gasolene, Diesel fuel or even air power fuel. Besides biomass is able to be converted to electricity which so can supply energy for transit. Electrical propulsion as an option to biofuels for transit is possible although this thought is waiting for the battery engineering cost to cut down. In the bulk of markets fuel costs for electric battery powered vehicles are predicted to be a little per centum of that for sparkignition engines powered by gasolene ( Idaho National Laboratory 2005 ) . Graph 3 below compares the intercrossed electric vehicles ( HEV ) , internal burning engine ( ICE ) vehicles and battery powered vehicles charged by traditional electric grids based on coal fired steam power workss are comparable to gasoline fired in footings of both energy efficiency and nursery gas emanations. Conversely electricity from natural gas fired combined rhythm power workss makes battery powered vehicles one of the most attractive vehicle platforms in footings of both energy efficiency and nursery gas emanations. Through Rankine rhythms, Brayton cycles, of fuel cells biomass can be used as an energy beginning to bring forth electricity power. comparing of vehicles Graph 3. Well-to-Wheel Efficiency and Environmental Impact of Vehicle Technologies. These rhythms are given in more item below: The Ranking Cycle – This involves the direct burning of fuel to raise pressurized steam that is expanded through turbine to bring forth electricity ( Singer 1991 ) . Steam power workss contribute most of the electric power coevals capacity in the universe. Rankine rhythm offer the advantage because it has the ability to straight fire coal and other cheap solid fuels. The Brayton Cycle – This produces electric power by spread outing hot gas through a turbine ( Poullikkas 2005 ) . Open firing biomass straight to bring forth the hot gas watercourse has been found to be impractical since caustic compounds carried with the gas watercourse harm the gas turbine. Gasification or fast pyrolysis of biomass to bring forth syngas or bio oil that can be cleaned before firing in the gas turbine is a more capable option. Because of the easiness of works building, potency for high thermodynamic efficiencies when employed in advanced rhythms and cost effectivity in a broad scope of sizes ( from 10s of kW to 100s of megawatts ) makes the Brayton rhythm one of the best engineerings for bio energy. Fuel Cells – These straight convert chemical energy into work hence short-circuiting Carnot bounds for heat engines ( Dicks and Larminie 2000 ) . This does non intend that fuel cells can change over 100 % of the chemical heat content of fuel into work. In pattern the fuel cell transition efficiencies is 35 – 60 % depending upon the fuel cell design. Therefore fuel cells can bring forth significantly more work from a given sum of fuel than can heat engines. However carbonous fuels must foremost be converted to hydrogen before they are suited for usage in fuel cells. When finding the overall fuel to electricity transition efficiency of a fuel cell energy losingss associated have to besides be considered. At comparatively low temperatures 65 A °C proton exchange membrane ( PEM ) fuel cells operate which is suited for automotive applications, job with bring forthing H is the high costs which have limited its commercial application. Most favoured are high temperature fuel cells for stationary power coevals because of chances for heat recovery. Combined rhythm power systems know that waste heat from one power rhythm can be used to coerce a 2nd power rhythm and were developed to better energy transition efficiency ( Williams and Larson 1993 ) . If a individual heat engine could be built to map between the temperature extremes of firing fuel and the ambient environment this would do combined rhythms be pointless. However temperature and force per unit area boundaries on stuffs of building have disallowed this acknowledgment. Combined rhythms use a top-flight rhythm runing at high temperatures and a bottoming rhythm runing on the rejected heat from the exceeding rhythm. Most normally combined rhythm power workss employ a gas turbine for the top-flight rhythm and a steam turbine for the bottoming rhythm accomplishing overall efficiencies of 50 % or more. Power workss based on high temperature fuel cells are on occasion incorporated with both a gas turbine exceeding rhythm and a steam turbine underside cycling to better efficien cy even more.The Car and Fuel of the FutureA figure of alternate vehicle and fuel options are under consideration to ease the menaces of clime alteration, urban air pollution and foreign oil dependance caused by motor vehicles. Approximately 97 % of all energy consumed by our autos, sport public-service corporation vehicles, new waves, trucks, and aeroplanes is still petroleum-based.Alternate Fuel VehiclesAlternate fuel vehicles ( AFVs ) and their fuels encounter two critical jobs. In general they suffer several market place disadvantages compared to conventional vehicles running on conventional fuels. For this ground in order to win they require authorities inducements. Besides they do non supply typically cost effectual solutions to major energy and environmental jobs which undermines the authorities to step in and assist them. Other than the thought of cost effectual decreases at that place have historically been six major barriers to AFV success: 1. High first cost for vehicle 2. On-board fuel storage issues ( i.e. limited scope ) 3. Safety and liability concerns 4. High fuelling cost ( compared to gasoline ) 5. Limited fuel Stationss 6. Improvements in the competition ( better, cleaner gasolene vehicles ) . All AFVs face the increasing †competition † from improved gasoline-power vehicles.HydrogenIt is really dubious that H vehicles will derive a batch of market incursion. A figure of major engineering discoveries and authorities inducements will be needed for them to be successful. US director of Toyotas advanced engineerings group Bill Reinert said in January 2005 that without multiple discovery we wont see many gross revenues of fuel cell vehicles until at least 2030 ( Truett, 2005 ) . Reinert was asked when fuel cell autos would replace gasolene powered autos where he replied †If I told you ‘never, ‘ would you be upset? † ( Butters 2005 ) . If projected major progresss in cost decrease and public presentation for H engineerings similar progresss should be made for loanblends, batteries and biofuels every bit good. It is really likely we will ne'er see a lasting, low-cost fuel cell vehicle with an efficiency, scope and one-year fuel measure that match even the best current intercrossed vehicle. Out of all AFVs and alternate fuels, fuel cell vehicles running on H are likely the least likely to be a cost effectual solution to planetary heating which is why other thoughts should hold equal policy attending and support.E-HybridsThe stopper in loanblend besides called the e-hybrid which has well lower nursery gas emanations, a much lower one-year fuel measure, a much longer scope than current autos where you can besides fuel at place and fewer substructure jobs than traditional AFVs. Vehicle usage is largely for short trips such as transposing which means for a long period the auto wo n't be in usage where in this period the vehicle can be charged. Typical scope for these autos last around 20-40 stat mis. If the electricity were from CO2 free beginnings so these vehicles would besides hold clear reduced net nursery gas emanations. Since these vehicles besides have gasoline engine means they have many advantages compared to pure electric vehicles. One of import factor is that they are non limited in scope by the entire sum of battery charge. If the battery charge is completing the auto can run on gasolene and be charged when possible. E-hybrids avoid many of the barriers these are: They do non hold a hapless scope. There are no major safety and liability issues but great attention would hold to be taken in the design of any place based system that is used for bear downing. Fueling cost is cheaper when compared to gasoline where it costs about a 3rd of the monetary value per stat mi.

Organization behavoir Essay

Question No. 1 Does this case prove economic downturns and company layoffs fail to lead to workplace malfeasance? Why or why not? Answer: The case proves that economic downturns and company layoffs does not lead to workplace malfeasance. As the print media shows that violence has increased during recession. The Times of London reported that U.S. job losses were directly linked to 58 fatalities in eight incidents during one month in 2009. It was a single case and there may be other causes of this incident. Another example mentioned in the case is the survey from 400 employees asked in 2008 whether the recession has caused a recent rise in thefts of money among employees, 18 percent said yes, 41 percent said no and 41 percent were unsure. It shows a very little minority consider that theft is up. Question No. 2 Does the case prove we can learn nothing from the business press? Answer: No, the case does not prove that we can learn nothing from the business press. We can learn about the current issues from the business press but we have to analyze the situation carefully. We read different articles, but we do not confirm it either this information is accurate or not. This may be true but sometime not, we should focus on the source of this information which is most important thing. There would be many chance of manipulate the data to give some kind of favor to someone. We can learn so many things from the business press, it’s always valuable for us but we should need to focus on the source and ethnicity of data to spread it out to others. Question No. 3 Does this chapter provide any clues for how you can be an informed consumer of business news on OB issues? Answer Yes, this chapter gives a many type of clues first the systematic study, which means to make reasonably accurate predictions. When we talk about the systematic system, we mean looking at relationships, attempting to attribute cause and†¦

Protecting Victims’ Rights

The criminal justice system is designed to prevent crime from occurring, as well as administering justice after a crime is committed. One important aspect of this side of the law is to ensure that victims of crime are well protected and receive fair treatment throughout the process. That is why government and local agencies are required to ensure victims’ rights, from making sure that the accused stays away to notification for every important date concerning the crime. And no single segment of crime victims receives as much protection as female victims of sexual crimes. More than any other group of crime victims, female victims of sexual assault, harassment, and other sexual crimes are the main focus of many local, state, and federal law enforcement measures to ensure the protection of victims’ crime. As the federal level of the justice system offers a vast amount of information regarding the protection of victims’ rights, it serves as the perfect starting point to understanding victims’ rights. The most comprehensive bill that covering victims’ rights is 18 United States Code, Section 3771, which includes eight measures designed to protect victim’s rights. One point of the Bill of Victim’s Rights is that the victim has the right to be reasonably protected from the accused (United States House of Representatives, 2006). This includes every measure that local and government authorities can take to make sure the accused does not cause any further hardship or threaten the victim in any way. Another important part of the victims’ bill of rights is making sure that victims are able to state their case in full, and have the right to be reasonably heard at any public proceeding in the district court involving release, plea, sentencing, or any parole proceeding (United States House of Representatives, 2006). Making sure that victims utilize their right to be heard begins initially with the law enforcement agent taking their statement. The purpose of the victim impact statement is to give the victim of the crime the chance to express, in writing, the impact of the crime, including all economic losses, physical or psychological injuries, and significant changes to the victim’s quality of life (Commonwealth of Virginia, 2000). Whatever the victim tells the law enforcement agents about the impact of the crime on his or her life helps determine the types of assistance that a victim may need. For sexual assault victims this aspect of the process is very important, as the crime is often committed with few or no other witnesses. Victims of sexual assault illustrate many of the reasons that victims require such strong protection of their rights. Because of the violent nature of rape and sexual assault, victims are often traumatized far more than other crime victims. Victims of sexual assault and rape are often left frightened and unwilling or unable to pursue the necessary course of justice against their perpetrators. This fear might encourage them to withhold information that may also be embarrassing or painful to bring up, leading to the perpetrator getting away with the crime. As serious crimes, the charges that result from sexual assault and rape are significant and can result in severe penalties for the perpetrator, including long prison sentences. However, despite the seriousness of sexual crimes, most victims fail to report them to authorities for a variety of reasons, including the fear that their rights may not be fully protected. The fact that many of these victims do not report the crime leads to the criminals not being convicted. As for all sexual crimes against females, rape remains the least reported of them all, which also includes having the least number of indictments and least number of convictions of all violent crimes in America; the segment of the population that experiences the highest amounts of rape and lowest amounts of reporting them is among college students, where the reporting rate is around 5%. (Fisher, et. al, 2000). This low instance of reporting of sexual assault and rape illustrates an important deficiency in the criminal justice system’s ability to convince female sexual crime victims of their rights. Many of the reasons that females cite for not reporting the crimes inflicted against them include fear of blame from society, desire to quickly move on with their lives, their desire to avoid a long investigation and subsequent trial, and finally out of concerns for their privacy. It is the job of police, the district attorney’s office, and federal branches to make sure that none of these reasons prevent a victim from reporting a crime. Because of this there are many programs designed to provide crime victims with accurate information about the criminal justice system and the many rights that victims possess. At the federal level, the Department of Justice offers many programs and initiatives to ensure that victims are made fully aware of their rights. The Office of Justice Programs has an Office for Victims of Crime that works throughout the year on programs designed to assist victims of crime through grants. The amount of help that the Office for Victims of Crime gives to victims is considerable. In Fiscal Year 2007, Office of Victims of Crime distributed more than $370 million to the states through Victims of Crime Act, which was signed into law by President George W. Bush on October 30, 2004 and contains four major sections related to crime victims and the criminal justice process, which include protecting crime victims' rights, eliminating the substantial backlog of DNA samples collected from crime scenes and convicted offenders, and improving and expanding the DNA testing capacity of federal, state, and local crime laboratories (U. S. Department of Justice Office for Victims of Crime [OVC], 2008). The Office for Victims of Crime has also given assistance grants and more than $165 million to the states through Victims of Crime Act compensation grants, with both the victim assistance grants and the victim compensation awards funded by the Crime Victims Fund, which is culled from fines, penalties, and bail forfeitures collected from convicted federal criminals (OVC, 2008). Other compensation measures taken on behalf of victims include providing reimbursement to crime victims for crime-related expenses such as medical costs, mental health counseling, funeral and burial costs, and lost wages or loss of support. hile state victim assistance programs fund local victim assistance services such as crisis intervention, counseling, emergency shelter, and criminal justice system advocacy (OVC, 2008). And, while the Office for Victims of Crime provides monetary compensation to many victims, it also heads up several programs designed to create a stronger conglomeration of criminal justice d epartments to ensure the protection and assistance of crime victims. The Office trains criminal justice professionals about the needs and rights of victims of crime and provides them with the latest in ideas and practices in victim protection through such networks as the Office’s Help Exchange Lessons and Practices in Victim Services message board, and finally the Office sponsors the National Victim Assistance Academy, an annual training conference for those who assist victims and survivors of crime (OVC, 2008). While there remain many programs set up by the Department of Justice to ensure victims’ rights, most of the inspiration for the programs continues to come from the basic tenets of the Victims’ Bill of Rights. Another important aspect of the Victims’ Bill of Rights is that the victim is made aware of everything that occurs in the case as it progresses. This also means that the victim has the right to any and all information concerning the case of the prosecution. According to the U. S. code victims have: â€Å"The right to reasonable, accurate, and timely notice of any public court proceeding, or any parole proceeding, involving the crime or of any release or escape of the accused† (United States House of Representatives, 2006). This means that victims should not be made to wait for the latest information that arises in the case, including any revelations about the accused or any changes in his or her status. Providing accurate and timely information to victims about their rights is one of the main ways of protecting their rights, and the Nationwide Automated Victim Information and Notification System has been established to make sure that they receive information pertaining to their case as soon as it becomes available. Began with funding by the Office for Victims of Crime, the Victim Information and Notification System is a computer-automated system that notifies crime victims of key events in their cases, including an offender’s release before trial or from prison; as of September 2007, VNS was serving more than 1,300,000 crime victims nationwide with information on federal criminal justice cases provided by the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the United States Postal Inspection Service, the United States Attorneys' Offices, and the Federal Bureau of Prisons (OVC, 2008). By keeping crime victims informed of the status of their case and of the perpetrator, criminal justice professionals are able to provide victims with a piece of mind that allows them to retain a semblance of a normal life after crime. The Victims’ Bill of Rights continue with: â€Å"The right not to be excluded from any such public court proceeding, unless the court, after receiving clear and convincing evidence, determines that testimony by the victim would be materially altered if the victim heard other testimony at that proceeding; the reasonable right to confer with the attorney for the Government in the case† (2006). By giving the victim the right to access the court information, as well as hear the case made against the accused in detail, the federal and local governments are ensuring that victims have significant influence on the outcome of the case. They are able to revise and mistakes made in the case of the prosecution, and they are also able to participate as much as possible in the proceedings. Not only does this help the victim put some of the trauma from the crime behind him or her, but it also significantly affects the ability of the Government to prosecute the accused. Additional rights ensured by the Victims’ Bill of Rights are loyal to the basic ideals of the American Bill of Rights and deal mainly with the right to a speedy trial. According to the bill, victims have: â€Å"The right to full and timely restitution as provided in law; the right to proceedings free from unreasonable delay† (United States House of Representatives, 2006). This not only ensures that the law will pursue the case against the accused to prevent further crime, but it also reinforces the role of the law as efficient protector. Also, by ensuring that the proceedings move in a timely manner, the victim is not required to endure a long and painful process. These measures go along well with the final right guaranteed by the victims’ bill of rights, and that is the right to be treated with fairness and with respect for dignity and privacy (2006). In the end, this is most important of all the rights, and perhaps a culmination as well, as all of the rights assured victims are to treat them with the utmost respect, fairness, and dignity. The duty of the U. S. Attorney’s Office and the Department of Justice is to ensure victims of crime that their rights will be protected, and their results have been mixed at best. While there remain many important programs to educate victims on their rights, the case of sexual assault and rape victims and their low rate of reporting crimes against them speak of a general failure in assuring victims of their rights’ protection. Organizations like the Office for Victims of Crime must work harder to ensure that the victims of crime requiring the most assurance and protection receive what they need, and not just monetary compensation for financial losses or medical bills. While some rights vary from state to state, with some states guaranteeing even more rights to victims than others, the general protections afforded by the Victims’ Bill of Rights should be known by all victims. In the end, educating victims on their rights is the biggest protection that any government or local authority can offer victims of crime.

Stake holder and share holder- Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Stake holder and share holder- - Essay Example Most corporations run through the watch of shareholders. The shareholders demand obligations from the management of the firm. The shareholders have a say in the corporation depending on their share prices. The level of their financial measure in the corporation determines their level of influence. Shareholders share the profits of the company based on the percentage of their shares. It also applies to losses. Stakeholders are individuals who have interests in the corporation. The company has no obligation towards the stakeholders. Employees are the perfect example of stakeholders (James & Jerryl.1996, pp. 1-4). With the current world where globalization has taken effect, it is important for a company to pursue profitability. The corporations should fit themselves into the market economy using proper tools to maximize their profits. For good profitability, the company should have a certain responsibility, for example, social responsibility. It is evident responsibility, and profitability is contradictory, but they have to go together in any corporation. To ensure companies survive, they should produce high profits. The profits depend on the responsibility of the networks within the corporation, such as the people (Reed & Freeman, 1983, pp. 1-19). In most cases, shareholders emphasize on profitability over responsibility. It is the perspective of the shareholders. The shareholders believe the corporations have full control from the owners. They attribute the companys success to factors such as share price, economic profits, and dividends. In addition, they rely on the management to give in their best, for great success of the corporation. The shareholders do not believe responsibility will make the corporation attain success. Any society will not measure the companys success by their level of social responsibility, according to the shareholders perspective. Furthermore, their perspective does recognize the

A paper about a short story Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

A paper about a short story - Essay Example the story where he points out that Matman happens to be a voodoo practitioner, he then described some of the rituals that she sometimes performs that cause her to sometimes fall down to the ground and commence rolling about under the glowing moon (DeSanto 2013). After conducting these bizarre ritual, Matman would then proceed to walk back to the house to eat. An analysis of this incidence seems to suggest to the reader that to Matman and her family, that the occurrence of such an event is a normal everyday event, this is despite of the fact that such actions would generally be regarded by the larger society as being quite bizarre. DeSanto also undertakes to try and normalize some gruesome incidents in the story and describes how after Lord Invader had attacked and mauled the ear of one of the neighborhood boys while he was busy playing a game of basketball, Dà ©dà © had proceeded to beat him out there in the street before leading the dog home. When the boy’s father had turned up at the house, he had insisted on having the dog killed and on his threatening the Dà ©dà ©Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s family, Dà ©dà © had agreed to kill the dog. Dà ©dà © had then slit the dog’s throat during a brief ceremony that had commenced with Matman whispering a Haitian death song that quickly turned into howls. After slitting the dog’s throat Dà ©dà © had proceeded to give it a brief eulogy by whispering â€Å"Lawd Invadar. I lahved you† (DeSanto 2012). By the delivery of the somewhat ordinary eulogy after Dà ©dà ©Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s character had conducted a bizarre ceremony in which he killed his dog, DeSanto is seen to engage in an attempt where he tries to normalize a gruesome event in which a dog is butchered in a bizarre ceremony. The normalization of the bizarre is also seen to be employed by DeSanto in his narration of how John took off all his clothes and ran around the neighborhood while only wearing a bone necklace and then proceeded to dig up the remain of Lord Invader in the rain (DeSanto 2012). The humming of

Leadership styles critically assessed Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Leadership styles critically assessed - Essay Example l from others distinguishes him from the many successful people who always brag about their wealth, and this makes him successful and popular, bringing out a leader with whom everyone wants to associate and follow. Ambition is a leadership skill he has developed since childhood, and with it he was able to strive towards achieving a great user interface for Microsoft windows and other Microsoft applications. His will to work towards goals and directing people towards achieving business objectives is a strong trait that every leader willing to succeed should embrace. His vision also led him to establish the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation that strives to eliminate malaria, having viewed the illness as a challenge that mankind can combat and overcome. Furthermore, his investments are wise and aim towards achieving futuristic goals whose end product would be a transformed world in which modern technology can be accessed by anyone all over the world. A good leader always listens. Bill gates is a good listener and is never in a rush to make critical decisions. He respects the views of others and always considers them when making business decisions. Such a trait is good for leaders guiding people through a competitive market, and with it, one gets to gain knowledge from many angles and even build on ideas proposed by others (Bjerke, 1999). Confidence and courage are a necessity for one to become a good leader. He at one time went to court to prevent the splitting of Microsoft into smaller companies. Leadership involves having a stand and siding with what one believes is right. Such a trait can help leaders willing to venture into harsh business environments such as those that are highly competitive or demand a lot of capital and labour. Bill Gates at times gets to be hard on his employees when it comes to getting software solutions. He believes that every software flaw has a solution to it and urges his employees to work extra hard until this solution is arrived

Analyzing Concepts of Love Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Analyzing Concepts of Love - Essay Example However, the same individuals that have been in a relationship for long cannot explain the meaning of love. Some individuals believe in the fact that love emanates from friendship that has cultivated trust and assurance. On the other hand, others believe that having someone special and cultivating love is a matter of luck. Worse still, others do not recognize that love does not exist, and may not have any term to explain it. Buttrose (pp.43) argues that despite the definitions that are concluded by researchers, the concept of love cannot be alienated from the life of human beings. According to Buttrose (pp.17) love is not only patient and generous, but also does it not brag of its doings. Through love, individuals are able to seek the truth that surpasses all selfish attributes of either party. Love shields the other partner from love, in an attempt to bring out the best in them. In this context, therefore, it is palpable to argue that, love must hope for the best for all individuals and should direct them towards achieving the best in their own potentiality. On another angle, other analysts argue that, individuals must be cautioned against falling in love, but maintain the aspect of staying steadfast in love, for love can be described as a dream that is likely to come true if good grounds are cultivated. Buttrose (pp.113) argues that love exists between two individuals or even more than two persons. Through love, a form of bonding is created between the involved parties. This is boosted by the commitment and zeal portrayed by the two parties in an endeavor to build love. This is an indication that, love is a feeling that creates bonding of trust, which may lead to familiarity and interdependence between the two individuals. Love in this context, is a reaction that, consoles the soul, and in a layman’s term, ‘brings a smile to the two parties’. Love is an emotion that needs to be experienced, in order to feel it. Over the years, it has prove n an uphill task to measure the depth of one’s love towards somebody or something. In the instance of motherly love, this kind of love cannot be put on a weighing scale. This love is unconditional and keeps on thriving with time. This kind of love is referred to as filial love that displays magnitude of attachment between the mother and child. Alternatively, there exists agape love that emanates from God. This kind of love is exceptional and cannot be compared to that of any other individual anywhere in the world. Love has been described as a form of magic. Just like magic can be created, the same way does love. This can only be proven if the individual focuses on the strengths of their partners and work towards boosting the ability of their partners to portray pleasant attributes. In this case, the two individuals are able to fit in the other person’s world as well as, identify the other party’s weaknesses. Each individual possesses good attributes and it only takes help and optimism of another person to cultivate these positive attributes. Just like the saying of ‘love all’ indicates, in this context, love can be defined as a magic that exits between two persons that have the ability to grow and mature. Love can be described as a long journey by two concerned parties. It is undoubted that a journey must be entangled with a myriad of issues. The major form of love that seems to face